The Finnish Criminal Justice System This entry gives a general account of the overall criminal system and outline the political and legal structure and the history of the Finnish criminal justice system to help account for the unique aspects that may help to bind the many parts of this criminal justice system together, and to … Read more
Czech Republic Criminal Justice System This entry gives a general account of the overall criminal system and outline the political and legal structure and the history of the Czech Republic criminal justice system to help account for the unique aspects that may help to bind the many parts of this criminal justice system together, and … Read more
APTER . NYSE AMEX (FORMERLY AMERICAN STOCK EXCHANGE)—UNITED STATES National Securities Regulation in relation to Stock Exchanges. Read more about international securities regulations here. Legislation and Documents Selected AMEX Rules Pertaining to Membership Fees to AMEX […]
Bosnian Enforced Disappearance Cases The European Court of Human Rights and the Human Rights Committee’s approaches to Bosnian Enforced Disappearance Cases Following its independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in March 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina went through three and a half years of armed conflict, which ended with the signing of the General … Read more
Italian Legal History Short Legal History of Italy Italian law is grounded in the civil law, the revived classical Roman law. The civil law, concentrating on private law, owes much of its modern development to other influences, particularly canon and Germanic and feudal law as interpreted and applied in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. It … Read more
Counter-Terrorism in Belgium NATIONAL POLICY Belgium attaches fundamental importance to fighting terrorism and strives to ensure that it has all the appropriate means of preventing acts of terrorism and effectively bringing the perpetrators to trial. This combat is pursued with due regard for human rights and the rule of law. Belgium has established a coherent, … Read more
German Civil Judiciary Viewed comparatively from the Anglo-American perspective, the greater authority of the German judge over fact-gathering comes at the expense of the lawyers for the parties. Adversary influence on fact-gathering is deliberately restrained. Furthermore, in routine civil procedure, German judges do not share power with jurors. There is no civil jury. Because German … Read more
German Civil Procedure There are two fundamental differences between German and Anglo-American civil procedure, and these differences lead in turn to many others. First, the court rather than the parties’ lawyers takes the main responsibility for gathering and sifting evidence, although the lawyers exercise a watchful eye over the court’s work. Second, there is no … Read more
Contents of the Visigothic Code Preface of the Visigothic Code (Forum judicum) Preface: see the entry on the Visigothic Code in this legal encyclopedia. Book I: Concerning Legal Agencies Title I: The Lawmaker Law I: What the Method of Making Laws Should Be. Law II: How the Lawmaker Should Act. Law III: What Should be … Read more
Visigothic Code Preface of the Visigothic Code (Forum judicum) [v] It was well said by Gibbon that “Laws form the most important portion of a nation’s history,” for from them, more impartially than from any other source, we derive information of the customs, virtues, vices, political ethics, faults, follies, and religious prejudices of a people. … Read more
Benes Decrees This relate to events that occurred in what was at the time Czechoslovakia. In 1945, after the German annexation of Sudetenland and the occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Czechoslovak government, under the leadership of President Edvard Benes, ratified a series of laws known as the Benes Decrees. These decrees were primarily aimed at reconstructing … Read more
Doctrine of Papal Primacy For contextual information, see the entry on Later Medieval Canon Law in this encyclopedia. Boniface VIII, Unam Sanctam, 1302 The Bull ‘Unam Sanctam’, in which Pope Boniface VIII asserted his rights against King Phillip the Fair of France, is a landmark in the history of the doctrine of Papal Primacy. Text … Read more
Rebirth of Canon Law Studies Rebirth of Canon Law Studies: 11th Century On Domus Gratiani: Gratian Studies Gratian was a 12th-century Benedictine monk and canon lawyer from Bologna. Little is known about him beyond the fact that he compiled and wrote this collection of legal texts, which became the code of canon law used in … Read more
Medieval Bulgars Pope Nicholas I: Responses to the Questions of the Bulgars A.D. 866 (Letter 99) Note: previous chapters are available here, here and also here. Chapter LV. Now then, as for your assertion that the Greeks forbid you to receive communion without belts, we have no idea with what witnesses from sacred Scripture they … Read more
Questions of the Bulgars Pope Nicholas I: Responses to the Questions of the Bulgars A.D. 866 (Letter 99) Note: previous chapters are available here and also here. Chapter XXI. If a servant leaves his lord in flight from his lord and is captured, he should be forgiven; otherwise let the decrees of the laws not … Read more
Bulgars Since the sixth century, the Bulgars had known intermittent contact with the Christians of the surrounding nations, whether as merchants or prisoners-of-war or through diplomatic relations. During the later eighth and early ninth century, the Christian population in Bulgar lands increased so much that Christians were rumored to have influence at the court of … Read more
Papal Decrees Gelasius: On the Two Powers Gelasius I on Spiritual and Temporal Power, 494 Letter of Pope Gelasius to Emperor Anastasius on the superiority of the spiritual over temporal power: The pope’s view of the natural superiority of the spiriitual over the temporal power finds a clear expression the following remarkable letter of Gelasius … Read more
Slavic Law Slavic Legal History Russian Primary Chronicle: Ruskaia Pravda, An early Law code The Short Version: Article 1 If a man kills a man, the brother is to avenge his brother; the son, his father; or the father, his son; or nephews, their uncles; and if there is no avenger [the murderer pays] forty … Read more
Dutch Independence The Dutch Declaration of Independence, 1581 Through the history of dutch large cities, at the end of the Middle Ages, as many other large cities in Europe, they had charters giving them many rights of freedom. With Philip II of Spain and his sons in power in the Netherlands against William of Orange, … Read more
Powerless In Eastern Europe Our system is most frequently characterized as a dictatorship or, more precisely, as the dictatorship of a political bureaucracy over a society which has undergone economic and social leveling. I am afraid that the term “dictatorship,” regardless of how intelligible it may otherwise be, tends to obscure rather than clarify the … Read more
Human Rights in Belarus Human Rights Committee’s Views When State Parties refuse to cooperate with the United Nations Human Rights Committee (HRC) or deliberately reject its decisions, the influence of the HRC is negatively affected and the significance of its views diminished. Since the HRC’s views “exhibit some important characteristics of a judicial decision” (UN … Read more
International Child Abduction in Europe European Union Regulation and the Hague Convention on International Child Abduction In the European Union, a community composed of multicultural and multiethnic societies, where citizens move freely across borders, the abduction of children is a growing problem. Frequently, abductions occur among E.U. citizens, residents of a particular Member State, who … Read more
Medieval Bulgar Controversy Pope Nicholas I: Responses to the Questions of the Bulgars A.D. 866 (Letter 99) Note: previous chapters are available here, here, here and also here. Chapter LXXV. The bishops whom we have sent to your country are bringing with them in writing the judgment of penance[25] that you requested, and of course … Read more
Ecumenical Councils Ecumenical and General Church Councils Note: this is a useful, if denominationally partisan, article from the Catholic Encyclopedia. Councils are legally convened assemblies of ecclesiastical dignitaries and theological experts for the purpose of discussing and regulating matters of church doctrine and discipline. The terms council and synod are synonymous, although in the oldest … Read more
German Criminal Code The Criminal Code (StGB, with the necessary delimitation also dStGB) regulates in Germany the core matter of substantive criminal law. While this determines the conditions and legal consequences of criminal acts, the procedure for enforcing its norms, criminal proceedings, is governed by its own code of practice – the Code of Criminal … Read more
Treason in Europe Definition of Treason
Breach of allegiance. There existed formerly both high treason and petty treason. (1) Under the Treason Act, 1351, a person commits high treason who does an overt act showing an intention to kill or depose the King, or to do him any bodily harm […]
Forfeiture of Property, Corporate Fines and Other Special Legal Effects of Crime in Europe Forfeiture of Property, Corporate Fines and Other Special Legal Effects of Crime in Sweden Forfeiture of Property, Corporate Fines and Other Special Legal Effects of Crime in the Swedish Penal Code The […]
Italy in Europe Outline of the Country´s Legal System According to the work "Guide to Foreign and International Citations", by the Journal of International Law and Politics (New York University School of Law): The head of the state is the President of the Republic. The […]
The Legal Provisions in Europe Legal Provisions in Sweden In the Swedish Constitution: The Instrument of Government (SFS nr: 1974:152) Chapter 8 of the Instrument of Government has the headline “Acts of law and other provisions”. Here is the content of Chapter 8: Article 1 provides the following: It follows from the rules laid down … Read more
Freedom of Expression in Europe Freedom of Expression in Sweden In the Swedish Constitution: The Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression (SFS nr: 1991:1469) In addition to the Instrument of Government, Sweden has three fundamental laws (Sveriges Grundlagar): the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of … Read more
Official Documents in Europe Official Documents and Press Freedom in Sweden In the Swedish Constitution: The Freedom of the Press Act (SFS nr: 1949:105) In addition to the Instrument of Government, Sweden has three fundamental laws (Sveriges Grundlagar): the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, which covers the the public nature of … Read more
German Criminal System Note: See also the German Criminal Code. For details on the German legal system, please see here. Contents Information on the following topics in relation to German penal law are available in this European legal encyclopedia: Supervision order Mutual insults Violating the memory of the dead Foreign money, stamps and securities Affirmations … Read more
Crimes Against the Security of the Realm in Europe Crimes against the Security of the Realm in Sweden Crimes against the Security of the Realm in the Swedish Penal Code The Swedish Criminal Code was adopted in 1962 and entered into force on 1 January 1965. It contains provisions on crimes […]
European Idea in Europe Description of The European idea The Concise Encyclopedia of the European Union describes the european idea in the following terms: [1] The 'European idea' is evocative, suggesting both a certain view of history and a manifest European destiny. It is […]
Germany in Europe According to the work "Guide to Foreign and International Citations", by the Journal of International Law and Politics (New York University School of Law): In Germany’s federal structure, most of the legislative power is concentrated at the national level, while […]
Publication in Europe Definition of Publication
Prior to the Wills Act, 1837, a ivill luad to be published, i. e., declared by the testator, in the presence of witnesses, to be his will : abolished by the Wills Act, 1837.
For the purposes of the Copyright Act, 1911, publication in […]
European Directive on the Taxation of Savings Council Directive 2003/48/EC of 3 June 2003 on taxation of savings income in the form of interest payments, as amended by Council Directive 2004/66/EC of 26 April 2004 and Council Decision 2004/587/EC of 19 July 2004. The Council of the European Union has adopted this directive: having regard … Read more
Common Agricultural Policy in Europe EU Common Policies: Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) Introduction to Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was established by the 1957 Rome treaty that created the European Economic Community. The policy reflected a belief in the […]
Osce in Europe Council of Europe and Osce Content about Osce from the publication "The ABC of European Union law" (2010, European Union) by Klaus-Dieter Borchardt. The feature common to the second group of European organisations is that they are structured to enable as many […]
Enlargement in Europe Definition of Enlargement
Increasing an estate, e.g., when a base fee becomes united with the reversion or remainder in fee, the base fee is enlarged to the fee-simple
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Norman Law in the History of Europe Norman legal history Obscurity of Norman legal history The oldest financial records, the oldest judicial records3 that it has transmitted to us, are of much later date than the parallel English documents. Its oldest law-books, two small treatises now fused together and published under the title Le très … Read more
Standards The use of Standards in complying with European product safety Directives is not compulsory, but they can be useful when designing products. However, some European standards have a special legal status and define minimum acceptable levels for health and safety by supporting the essential requirements of these Directives, and if followed fully may give … Read more
Anonymity in Europe Right to Anonymity and Press Freedom in Sweden In the Swedish Constitution: The Freedom of the Press Act (SFS nr: 1949:105) In addition to the Instrument of Government, Sweden has three fundamental laws (Sveriges Grundlagar): the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, which covers the right to Anonymity, and … Read more
European Union Services Directive The European Union (EU) Services Directive aims to break down barriers to cross border trade in services between countries in the EU. The Services Directive aims to make life easier for businesses, particularly small and medium sized enterprises, to offer their services to customers in other EU countries, whether establishing elsewhere … Read more
Electrical Equipment Low Voltage Directive (LVD) If you manufacture electrical equipment in Europe, you must comply with the national legislation that implement the European Council Directive 2006/95/EEC – commonly referred to as the Low Voltage Directive (LVD). One of the aims of the directive is to ensure that electrical equipment designed for use within certain … Read more
Toys in Europe Manufacture, imports and distribution of Toys: European Toy Safety Directive 2009/48/EC European Union manufacturers, authorised representatives of a manufacturer, importers and distributors of toys intended for children must comply with the provisions of the national law (in the UK, the Toys (Safety) Regulations 2011 for toys placed on the market after 19 … Read more
Products Supply Law European Community law on the supply of new products In order to facilitate a single European market for goods some 20 years ago the European Union began what is described as the ‘New Approach’. A number of Directives were adopted with the aim of setting objectives for the harmonisation of technical rules, … Read more
Crimes Against Public Order in Europe Crimes against Public Order in Sweden Crimes against Public Order in the Swedish Penal Code The Swedish Criminal Code was adopted in 1962 and entered into force on 1 January 1965. It contains provisions on crimes against public order and on most of the […]
Bulgarian Criminal Justice System This entry gives a general account of the overall criminal system and outline the political and legal structure and the history of the x criminal justice system to help account for the unique aspects that may help to bind the many parts of this criminal justice system together, and to show … Read more
Ecodesign Policy At the global level, the Marrakech Process aims “to support the elaboration of a 10-Year Framework of Programs (10 YFP) on sustainable consumption and production” coordinating global efforts on greener production among other efforts (United Nations, 2008). At European Union level, multiple Directives with significant impacts on product design have been implemented, coordinated … Read more